The story of Therī Uppalavaṇṇā in Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan Buddhist texts : a comparative Study from a feminist perspective

Abstract

This dissertation represents a case study of Therī Uppalavaṇṇā, a prominent representative of female practitioners in early Indian Buddhism. It examines, from a feminist perspective, several versions of her story belonging to distinct historical periods and contexts, as found in the Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan Buddhist texts. It finds that though the earliest Buddhist canonical texts, in general, portray Therī Uppalavaṇṇā as a perfected saint, Arahant, whom the Buddha recognized as one of his two chief female disciples (aggasāvikā) and as the foremost amongst his female disciples possessing psychic powers (iddhi), the presentation of her story in the versions of later origin, due to being shaped by the imagination and reinterpretation of the storytellers, recorders, and compilers over time and space, shows significant deviations and disagreements, while showcasing people’s changing attitudes towards the female Buddhist practitioner in different social contexts. This dissertation rereads and compares those different versions of her story to achieve four main research purposes: First, by analyzing the textual discrepancies, it aims to reconstruct the most convincing, unbiased portrayal of Therī Uppalavaṇṇā, mirroring the eminent bhikkhunī-s at the time of the Buddha, and reconceive and reclaim the religious tradition of women in early Indian Buddhism, a precious heritage concerning how Buddhist women went forth and achieved spiritual liberation in a prevailing patriarchal society of Ancient India. Second, through the reconstruction of different ideal images of “Therī Uppalavaṇṇā”, it aims to redefine and compare different paradigms suggested in Buddhist texts, for women to practice Buddhism and become enlightened. Third, it anticipates shedding light on the dialogue between women’s studies and Buddhist studies: for example, images of women in different Vinaya-s, a feminist analysis of the vinaya rules on sexual misconduct, female sexuality, and the female body in Buddhist literature. Additionally, cultural influences concerning female agendas in these records are identified and discussed. Fourth, it points to the egalitarian core of Buddhism, calling for a better understanding of the “ascetic misogynistic” elements in Buddhism, anticipating more awareness and practical improvements regarding the “institutional androcentric” elements within Buddhist society, and envisioning a feminist rejuvenation of Buddhism.