Creating texts for listening instruction : a mixed methods approach to study the lexical features of scripted texts

Abstract

This study investigated lexical features and repetition as two potential sources for making texts more accessible for second language learners. The assumption is that if we understand how students process the text, then we will be able to present them with more processable input to foster a positive effect on their language development. Data were 73 listening test papers completed by S5 students (Grade 11) from a secondary school in Hong Kong while a vocabulary test provided a baseline about the students’ proficiency. The study explored a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods to study the relationship of vocabulary and repetition to second language listening. Lexical features were measured by auto text analysis tools. Function words and content words were operationalised by two variables computed by LIWC, namely Sixltr and Analytic. Hoey’s (1991) taxonomy of repetition was used for coding the patterns of lexis. Test analysis and item person maps were automatically generated using a web-based system, the Assessment Quality-assurance Platform. Regression analysis suggested that three lexical variables - lexical frequency, Sixltr (content words) and Analytic (function words) - explained 29.7% of the variance in the listening score. Compared to the text factor measured by lexical variables, the learner factor measured by the vocabulary test explained 66.6% of the variance in the listening score. The results of item analysis of the listening test, as well as content analysis of the listening texts and student responses, were discussed with reference to the lexical threshold at a 2000 word level. Importantly, not achieving the lexical threshold meant not being able to pass the listening test. Student errors suggested that partial vocabulary knowledge impeded students’ ability to perform in task based listening. They did not have sufficient words to decode and encode the ideas with precision and accuracy. This affect their decoding of function words in the speech stream. Student responses revealed that the decoding of function words may be a top-down process where they used linguistic knowledge to fill in gaps. Errors abounded in spelling (e.g. ‘l’, ‘r’, ‘n’, ‘a’ and ‘e’) and morphemes (e.g. ‘s’, ‘ed’ and ‘ing’). Exact repetition did not decrease listening difficulty owing to students’ deficient vocabulary knowledge. Content analysis with item person maps provided insights into critical lexical features in relation to students’ stage of language development. The findings led to a listening threshold hypothesis. When the students approached the threshold, their processing became increasingly automatic and they were more sensitive to redundant and grammatical details in the clues. Vocabulary-related quantitative changes resulted in qualitative cognitive changes in their listening comprehension. Lexical threshold plays a crucial role for listening success. The study drew on the literature on listening comprehension, cognitive processing and vocabulary research to explain the interaction between the listener and the text. It yielded significant implications on adopting a processing approach to materials design and development. A set of guidelines and five types of focused practices are recommended for improving learners’ listening fluency.