The pattern of virtual water transfer in China: From the perspective of the virtual water hypothesis

Abstract

Limited and uneven distributed water resources have become one of the main obstacles to China's sustainable development, and the “virtual water hypothesis” (VWH) is expected to help mitigate water stress. This study discusses the virtual water transfer pattern and water resources stress in China from the VWH perspective. Economic sectors in China are divided into land-dependent sectors and non-land-dependent sectors according to their dependence on specific local land types. Furthermore, the water resources withdrawal and utilization corresponding to these sectors are divided into land-dependent water resources (LDW) and non-land-dependent water resources (NLDW). Results show that the virtual LDW flows from economically poor to relatively developed regions, while the virtual NLDW flows in the opposite direction. LDW dominates Chinese water stress (78.2%) and virtual water flow (74.5%). Furthermore, the virtual water dominated by LDW ameliorates national water stress (the population under unsustainable water stress declined by 0.21 billion) but aggravates the imbalance of water resources between North and South. The transfer of virtual NLDW alleviates this imbalance slightly. Suitable land conditions play a decisive role in LDW withdrawal, which then cannot be replenished by virtual water. However, the withdrawal and transfer of NLDW are flexible, which should be a focus. The results point out that the possibility of water-rich regions as virtual water exporters is the key to alleviating the North–South water resource imbalance in China with VWH theory. Improvement of land productivity and water efficiency can be helpful to alleviate water stress. These findings may provide new insight into China's virtual water transfer pattern from the VWH perspective.