Cross-linked polyaniline for production of long lifespan aqueous iron||organic batteries with electrochromic properties

Abstract

Aqueous iron batteries are appealing candidates for large-scale energy storage due to their safety and low-cost aspects. However, the development of aqueous Fe batteries is hindered by their inadequate long-term cycling stability. Here, we propose the synthesis and application as positive electrode active material of cross-linked polyaniline (C-PANI). We use melamine as the crosslinker to improve the electronical conductivity and electrochemical stability of the C-PANI. Indeed, when the C-PANI is tested in combination with a Fe metal negative electrode and 1 M iron trifluoromethanesulfonate (Fe(TOF)<inf>2</inf>) electrolyte solution, the coin cell can deliver a specific capacity of about 110 mAh g⁻¹ and an average discharge voltage of 0.55 V after 39,000 cycles at 25 A g⁻¹ with a test temperature of 28 °C ± 1 °C. Furthermore, mechanistic studies suggest that Fe²⁺ ions are bonded to TOF⁻ anions to form positively charged complexes Fe(TOF)⁺, which are stored with protons in the C-PANI electrode structures. Finally, we also demonstrate the use of C-PANI in combination with a polymeric hydrogel electrolyte to produce a flexible reflective electrochromic lab-scale iron battery prototype.