Negotiating Hegemonic Masculinity in Postsocialist China: Grassroots Male Images in Cyberspace

Abstract

<p>The emergence of men and masculinity as a field of study has rectified the common tendency of equating gender studies with women’s studies. Today, the burgeoning field known as critical studies on men (CSM) draws scholars from diverse disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, history, literature, media studies, film studies and numerous other fields. Within this domain, Raewyn Connell’s concept of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ has become the dominant dis- course for studying men (1995, 2000). The theory of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ is central to the politics of masculinity and significantly exposes the class-based, hierarchical nature of masculinity as a discursive construction that perpetuates male dominance in society. However, the ‘hegemonic masculinity’ portrayed in Connell’s and other scholars’ (Kimmel, Hearn, and Connell 2005) works primarily focuses on modern European and American societies, which may not adequately repre- sent the situation in non-Western societies. In response to this North-centric limitation, Connell (2007) later advocates for a reconsideration of masculinity issues in the context of Southern theory and global power dynamics in the postcolonial era.</p><p>The study of Chinese masculinity initially emerged as a response to the concept of ‘hegem- onic masculinity’, with the aim of revising and broadening this idea from a de-Western-centric standpoint. Utilising indigenous frameworks, such as wen/wu (Louie 2002; 文/武, the traditional Chinese ideal of a well-rounded man who is accomplished in both literary and martial arts) and yin/yang (阴/阳: the balance of both feminine and masculine traits), an increasing number of research works examine the ways in which Chinese masculinity diverges from its Western equiva- lent. At the same time, however, the local context is shaped by global influences. The idea of a singular, unadulterated ‘Chinese masculinity’ is merely an illusion, as the Chinese discourse on masculinity has evolved as a reaction to the globally prevailing model with regional characteris- tics. Consequently, exploring glocalised neoliberal subjectivity can help uncover how masculinity is mobilised by the state to foster consent and complicity within society (Horton 2022, 4).</p><p>This chapter examines the portrayal and discourse of masculinity in digital entertainment within the realm of Chinese popular culture, in light of Stuart Hall’s concept of ‘regimes of representation’ (Hall, Evans and Nixon 2013, 322). It explores the formation and negotiation of a hegemonic masculinity in the context of Chinese-style neoliberalism and a new politics of spectatorship, highlighting the hierarchical power relations in these representations. Contemporary gender theory has distinguished between male/female and masculinity/femininity, viewing masculinity as a discursively constructed space. In today’s China, there are forms of female masculinity that have been conspicuously endorsed and promoted by the state media. Thus, it is important to acknowledge that this chapter focuses on male masculinity. In the subsequent sections, we will first situate the hegemonic masculinity within the context of post-socialist China, and then move on to explore the grassroots masculinities that negotiate and show complicity with the dominant discourse.</p>