Diplomacy as Domestic Authority: Ming and Qing Tribute Exchanges, 1369–1891

Abstract

Diplomacy can serve leaders’ domestic political needs. I argue that diplomacy is particularly useful for increasing leaders’ domestic authority under certain conditions: when it is visible, performative, or otherwise conveys widely accepted symbols of authority; when it is conducted with counterparts held in relatively high esteem domestically; when it is wielded by leaders with relatively low levels of legitimacy; or when certain diplomatic practices are historically associated with regime authority. Leaders’ pursuit of diplomacy as domestic authority helps explain changes in states’ overall volumes of diplomacy in the short term, and also sheds light on why certain diplomatic relationships outlive their initial functions over longer periods of time. I assess these claims using an original dataset based on primary sources on tribute exchanges during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The findings demonstrate that Chinese emperors newly in power conducted a disproportionately high volume of exchanges. I find weaker evidence that this effect was more pronounced among low-legitimacy emperors. An accompanying case study illustrates how the Yongle Emperor deployed tribute diplomacy for domestic authority. The findings add to research on diplomacy, hierarchy, and empire in international relations. They also offer a fresh perspective on the nature of Chinese hegemony in early modern Asia.