Shanhua monastery : temple architecture and esoteric Buddhist rituals in medieval China

Abstract

The dissertation investigates the transformation of medieval Buddhist architecture through a close examination of rituals performed in the Shanhua Monastery, one of the oldest temple compounds in China. The post-Tang Buddhism in Liao monasteries underwent a marked development of combining Huayan doctrinal teachings and esoteric rituals. The examination of the Shanhua Monastery shows that the overall layout greatly resembles the formal Tang scheme; however, most architectural components are appropriated in catering for a new pattern of the maṇḍalic veneration program of Huayan and the internalized ritual performances of Esoteric Buddhism. Through close readings of architectural framework, iconographic program, epigraphic records, and Liao Buddhist pictorial and textual sources, the study reveals that the front hall of early-Jin and the main hall of late-Liao in the central axis are ritually interrelated. The asymmetrical columniation and open-ceiling framework are particular arrangements with the aim of offering spaces for both colossal images and ritual performances. In the spacious antechamber of the front hall, the bodhicitta precepts are conferred in front of the Huayan Triad images. This ordination ceremony initiates devotees as consecrated practitioners, before they formally receive abhiṣeka empowerment in the antechamber of the main hall, where deities of Vajradhātu-Maṇḍala are venerated. Delving into the long-ignored history of Chinese Esoteric Buddhist architecture, the dissertation departs from the typical analysis of re-constructing the ritual program. The symmetrical layout of the eighth-century Tang and ninth-century Heian esoteric halls that accommodate the secret and temporary settings of ritual pro-gram, are found to be faithful translations of the seventh-century Indian prototype. In post-Tang Buddhist Asia, the concurrent change of esoteric veneration format from temporary paintings to permanent sculptures eventually leads to the rearrangement of interior space, as exemplified in the ninth-century Tabo Monastery of West Himalaya, a group of eleventh-century Liao monumental halls, and thirteenth-century Kamakura esoteric halls. Through the examinations, the dissertation argues that the identical ritual arrangements lead to a number of similar architectural characteristics shared in the Liao and Heian long image halls. These similarities, rather than historical coincidences, uncover an untold history of medieval Buddhist transmissions between the two neighboring countries. Lastly, the dissertation introduces the well-established study of rituals into the recurrent discourse of medieval structural transformation in timber-framed halls. Rather than following the immense scholarship on stylistic development, the dissertation focuses on rethinking the role of rituals in the context of pre-twelfth century Buddhist architectural history. Three structural forms of high-ranking image halls, namely the pre-Tang Hōryūji-style, Tang Foguangsi-style, and Liao Fengguosi-style, are identified as chronologically concurrent to the two fundamental changes of the ritual concept in the seventh and eleventh centuries. In each period, the structural form properly embodies the underlying architectural conception in the corresponding ritual program. This dissertation concludes that far from simply a passive adaptation and re-adaptation following the development of building technology, the transformation of Chinese Buddhist architecture is a consequence of a thoughtful reflexive process of remodeling in response to the changes in rituals and their demands of new programs.